Compare The Immigration Policies In Two Countries History Essay

Compare The Immigration Policies In Two Countries History Essay Australia and America during the White Australia Policy period 1901 1973; Comparisons, Consequences the Future When comparing and contrasting the factors that shaped the immigration policies of the United States and Australia during the White Australia period of 1901-1973 it is apparent that there are some strong similarities in the policies, particularly in the areas of politics and economics. There are also defining differences in the contributing cultural factors with regard to the types of nationalism and identity that emerged within the two countries. Whilst both countries were immigrant nations, Australia has held on to its British heritage, whereas the United States had become a world power in its own right even before the British Empire fell. The vast size of the United States population has also played an immense role in its place in the global world of leading nations. Although the two nations are similar in geographical size, by 1901 the population of the United States was twenty times that of Australia (Aust. Beaureau of Statistics 2002 U.S. Bureau of the Census 1999). The enormi ty of the US made it less concerned than Australia about fears of attack, or being swamped by immigrants (Freeman Jupp, 1992, Preface). These factors have all contributed in some way to the diversity in the ethnicity of immigrants who settled in the respective nations. Similarly the reasons behind why they chose one country over another, were allowed into one country over another, or in the case of Australia, were coerced into migrating to a foreign nation by means of free passage, must be considered. The similarities and differences in the immigration policies of these two countries will be discussed and compared throughout this research essay with the aim to focus on how these factors have contributed to current migrant populations and immigration polices within a global context. The initial immigration policies of both Australia and the United States shared many common factors and some differences. In the United States the San Francisco Gold Rush began during 1848. Many Mexicans and South Americans migrated to the region at this time to labor as miners. Initially the levels of Chinese migration as gold diggers was relatively low; it was not until 1852 that the numbers began to rise and by 1860 California had a total Chinese population of approximately 35,000 (Markus, 1979, pg.1). The levels of Chinese people arriving became so high that accommodation sources were completely depleted and tents were pitched on the streets. From an economic perspective, fears began to rise that the mines were going to be fully overtaken by these migrants and the US miners began to retaliate, The War upon the Chinese began (Markus 1979, pg.4). Daily expulsions began to take place with US miners demolishing Chinese tents and claims and mining codes were introduced that prevented Chinese from mining in certain districts. The Chinese were physically chased from claims and mining districts and murders were reported but rarely, if at all, were followed up by officials with no apprehension or punishment of offenders (Markus 1979, pg.6-7). Similarly, in Australia, the discovery of Gold near Bathurst in 1851 was the initial instigator for mass migration changes. Prior to this, migrants had been primarily convicts from Britain and Ireland. During the Gold Rush migrants began pouring into Australia from wide and varied backgrounds. Between 1851 and 1861 over 600,000 people migrated to Australia (Migration Heritage Website, 2001). Whilst the vast majority were still from Britain and Ireland, immigrant levels from countries such as Europe, China, the United States, New Zealand and the South Pacific began to rise (Migration Heritage Website, 2001). One of the largest migration groups were the Chinese, who with time, were seen by the Australian population as a financial threat to society, just as they were in the United States. In both cases the number of Chinese migrants grew whilst gold yields slumped. However, unlike America , this economic concern introduced a change in culture in Australia , with racial aggression toward s the Chinese due to their differences in appearance, customs and culture. In a nation looking towards maintaining its British white Australia policy these clashes were a major reason for the implementation of the Immigration Restriction Act at the time of Federation in 1901. Therefore, for both Australia and the US, Asian immigration caused the introduction of exclusionary policies. The White Australia Policy of 1901 effectively banned Asian immigration to Australia for the next fifty years (Migration Heritage Website, 2001). Similarly, in the US the Chinese Exclusion Act passed by President Chester Arthur in 1882 prevented immigration of the Chinese for ten years. This act was later extended for another ten years and became permanent in 1902 (Harvard University Library website, 2006). Interestingly, although the US did not make the Chinese Exclusion Act permanent until 1902, Australian legislators used this act as a model when developing the Immigration Act of 1901 (White Australia Policy), after considering the problems they saw occurring in the US during the Gold Rush years (Markus 1979, Intro pg.xiv). In Australia, unlike the US, the main complaints against the Chinese were initially economic but rapidly became cultural and political. The economic concerns began with claims predominately relating to the idea that Chinese were taking the gold that rightfully belonged to the homeland. Whilst Australia had initially tolerated early Chinese immigration under the hope that they would provide cheap labor, boosting the economic working population and opening the Northern parts of Australia to settlement (Markus 1979, pg. 20), this early tolerance did not take long to fade. Miners and the Australian general population began to take offense not only to the working habits of the Chinese, their so called clanning which gave them the advantage of working in large numbers and monopolising diggings, but also to their mannerisms, customs, religion and colour (Markus 1979, pg. 21). Although these factors also played a role in the US reaction to Chinese immigrants, it was not quite so significant in the racial sense, as it was in Australia. Hence, Australia put into place its White Australia Policy, specifically aimed at excluding Asians, and later, non-desirable Europeans, whilst the US initially aimed their immigration policies predominantly at culling the amount of migrants from anywhere to their country. The Chinese Exclusion Act of 1902 preceded the US immigration restriction acts of the 1920s, which eventuated in the National Origins Act of 1929, capping the overall immigration allowance to the US at 150,000 and completely prohibiting Asian immigration (Harvard University Library website, 2006). World War I brought another change to the US immigration policies which had repercussions for Australia. In Australia when the First World War broke out in 1914, migration almost ceased altogether. Migrants from some countries previously thought of as acceptable were now classified as enemy aliens (Migration Heritage Website, 2001). Germans, Austro-Hungarians, Bulgarians and Turkish immigrants faced internment in Australia or general restrictions on their daily lives. Altogether, about 7000 people were interned in camps in New Sout Wales. This happened again during the Second World War with Germans, Italians, Japanese, Hungarians and Jewish refugees being interned. No preference was given on the basis of refugee status or political sympathies to the Jewish migrants. (Migration Heritage Website, 2001). In comparison, United States immigration between 1901 1973 can be categorized into three eras; The New Immigration 1890 1930, The Depression War 1930 1965 and Third World Immigratio ns 1965 onwards (Judd Freeman, 1992, pg 9). During the New Immigration unprecedented amounts of immigrants landed on American shores. Most of these were young and predominantly male, providing laborers to work within the industrial uprising (Judd Freeman, 1992, pg 9). However, after the First World War the United States wanted to limit the amount of the no longer acceptable Europeans, particularly Southern Europeans, migrating to their nation. In turn this caused increasing numbers of young Greek and Italian men to pay their way instead to Australia (as just discussed). This knock on effect resulted in Australia implementing strict quota restrictions on these men (Judd Freeman, 1992, pg. 4). These migrants were escaping religious, racial, and political persecution, or seeking relief from a lack of economic opportunity or famine (Eyewitness to History website, 2000). We can see here the correlation between the two countries and the consequences that the United States immigration r estrictions had on Australian policy makers, encouraging them to adopt racially discriminative immigration legislation. In Australia, Post World War II and on into the 1950s and 60s Europeans continued to be granted immigration status, with the focus being greatly based on the populate or perish idea and assimilation into Australian society and culture. Immigrants were expected to shed their existing cultural identities, including their native languages, to promote their rapid absorption into the host population (DFAT website, nd). Although Australia in theory needed and encouraged these migrants in order to increase the population through means of government work placement agreements, the conditions they were subject to on arrival were quite appalling. Most migrants arrived by ship, from where they were immediately taken to hostels for migrants that had been set up in rural areas. The conditions were often very primitive, with men and woman separated into single sex barracks, shared bathrooms and communal kitchens and dining rooms serving unfamiliar foods. The situation was not welcoming and there wa s an expectation that a migrant would need only four to six weeks in one of these hostels before being prepared to settle near their new (enforced) workplace. It was not until 1969 that family units opened at the Villawood migration centre in New South Wales (Migration Heritage Website, 2001). On the contrary in the US things were very different. As they had no need to populate their already vastly inhabited nation, migration policy was largely prohibitive. From the 1930s right through until 1965 when the Immigration Nationality Amendments Act was passed, immigration was on the decline in the US. As a result of this, coupled with the fact that existing migrants were ageing, specific assimilation policies were not implemented. The emphasis was very much on Americanization and the melting pot theory without an actual government act required (Judd Freeman, 1992, pg.8). With the passing of the Immigration Amendments Act this all changed. The Third World immigration period began, bringing with it a new wave of immigrants, differing from those who had arrived before. The new law set an overall limit on immigration from the eastern hemisphere countries and capped, for the first time, entries from the west. Family reunification was emphasized and refugee law was introduced (Free man Jupp, 1992, pg.9). This Immigration Amendments Act reflected the civil rights movement taking place in the US, along with a movement toward the establishment of good foreign relations with an economically rising Asia. As this new wave of migrants was hitting America, Australia also began to experience significant changes. It was recognized that immigrants could not be forced to become the New Australians(Freeman Jupp, 1992, p.184) when there were obvious, governmentally imposed, employment and social segregations for these new arrivals. Migrants were living, as a result of these segregations, in isolation and relative poverty(Freeman Jupp, 1992, p.184). Children were failing at school, only basic low paid employment was available for people with poor English speaking skills, and the local Australians avoided contact with these people who were supposed to be assimilating into their society. Between 1965 and 1972 an Integration Branch was implemented into the Department of Immigration (Freeman Jupp, 1992, p.186) which was a means to assist migrants in as many aspects of their new Australian life as possible. It was a first attempt to make life easier for them, with English language schooling, wel fare services, workplace teachings, etc. By 1972 the government had recognised that the migrant population in Australia formed a large part of society that deserved to be recognized and have their needs met. In 1973 Gough Whitlam abolished the White Australia Policy completely. In a comparison of both Australian and American immigration history, it can be seen that whilst some issues were relatively similar or related, as noted above, that these two countries are actually very different in terms of migration. Many correlations can be drawn globally between the two nations, such as being English speaking, settler societies, or countries of immigrants, but the reasons behind their migration trends in most instances is completely different. Whilst Australias early, and most significant immigration population initially came from Britain, based on ethnic ties with the home country and Australias need for population, Americas first immigrants were volunteer migrants heading to a new land for a better life. The similarities in the policies that both nations have adopted over time, is that they have caused a type of cultural pluralism (Ucarer Puchala, 1997, pg.341). In theory this means that all racial, religious and cultural groups are tolerated within one societ y. On the surface of both countries this is true. Blacks and whites work together, there are interracial marriages, everyone can vote and society does usually operate in a suitable manner. It is the problems under the surface of a long history of underlying racial tension that need to be addressed. These racial tensions essentially exist, not because of the immigration policies alone, but of how they were implemented into society for both locals and migrants. Emigration throughout history results from people around the world searching for human security, whether it is economic, social, political or cultural, the search continues (Ucarer Puchala, 1997, pg.342). A possible global solution for nations, such as Australia and the United States, who are trying to control and contain the flow of migration, would be to consider the adverse conditions that people are looking to escape and implement foreign policy to begin to change and assist with these problems. Although these types of pol icies would take a great deal of time to implement, it seems worth considering as a plausible and humanitarian option rather than simply working to establish policies that are aimed at keeping prospective migrants out as per the existing legislation in both countries.

Analysis of the Australian Healthcare System

Analysis of the Australian Healthcare System INTRODUCTION The health of people belonging to any nation is the prime topic of interest for the government of that very nation. On the same lines, it is very essential that the health system should be based on equity principle, such that no one is denied the right to utilize the benefits of the health care system. According to the National Health Reform Agreement, Australian Health care system is also founded on the concept of equity of access efficiency and effectiveness (Adityan2, 2013). It is found to be a world class system in terms of both effectiveness and efficiency. The population has a good health status, with the average life expectancy at birth of 81.4 years (women-83.7 and men- 79.2). This is the highest in the entire world. Still even with such statistics, there are certain groups like those of aboriginals and the Torres Islanders, who have a poor health status (AGDH, 2014). Australian government works under the scheme of medicare, which aims at providing help with high medical cost s and the hospital costs. Another scheme called the Pharmaceutical Benefits Scheme (PBS) has also been implemented so that the costs of most of the medicines is subsidized. This essay describes the current scenario that prevails in the Australian democracy, regarding the status of equity of access, its effectiveness and the efficiency of the healthcare system. Effectiveness in this regard focuses on the ratio of outputs to outcomes. These three components form the basis of an ideal health system. In other words, a health system that if effective and efficient, is able to yield estimated outcome, is able to generate profitable outputs and is easily accessible (widely distributed), is an ideal health system for any country (NHHRC, 2009). The aim of this essay is to discuss the postulates of equity of access, effectiveness and efficiency in the Australian health care system and also throw light on the interrelationships among these concepts. EQUITY According to the US health and human rights academics Braverman and Gruskinn equity is an ethical concept with the baseline of distributive justice. With respect to healthcare, equity aims to eliminate unequal opportunites that are provided, to be healthy. Such opportunities are not given to those who have membership of socially less privileged groups like the poor people, handicapped, disenfranchised racial, cultural or ethnic groups. Mostly the people living in the rural areas are treated this way. If equity has to be considered with respect to the health care practices, then all the disparities or discriminations based on races, castes, origin, etc, should be eliminated completely. Thus, equity aims at diverting the attention of authorities towards the less privileged people of the nation (Braverman et al., 2003). As depicted by this definition, the requirement for medical health care depends upon the medical and social situation of an individual. In Australia, indigenous populati on is the one suffering from denial from health care services. They are generally linked with the economical, social, educational and cultural causes. The World Health Organisation has described inequity as follows,† Inequities are the differences or discriminations that are unjust, unfair, unnecessary and avoidable, but still persist in our society. It is not that every inequity is unfair, but yes all inequities are a result of unfair differences among the people. In the field of healthcare, just refers to the access permission for those who are not able to pay large sums of money, but are in desperate need of medical aid. Inequity should be prevented in granting access to medical aids for such cases depending upon the needs of various groups †. Gavin Mooney has defined equity as â€Å"equal access to equal care for equal need† (Mooney G., 2003). It was surveyed and found that the current health care facilities do not cater to the special needs of the indigenous people. There are many barriers to equity of access like the cost of care is very high, the fees of the consumer is again high, there is low health literacy among the people, poor access to health service information by the patients living in the remote areas, timely unavailability of the doctors, prevalence of quality services only in the posh parts of the country and lastly, the discrimination in giving the treatments. The last point itself explains the loopholes in the health care system. Some of the major reasons for such inequity are as follows: Most of the shopkeepers have closed their outlet in remote and poorer areas because there is decline in bulk billing. Patients who are willing to pay some extra amount are treated well while the rest are just ignored and left to die. Generally there are no hospitals in the remote areas. But even if some are there, they are too old that they need replacement/ Access to high technology treatments is doubtful in such areas and for such population. Richardson has shown the data statistics saying that the treatment of heart disease is thrice as common as in the insured patients. Also the provision of timely surgery is not applicable for public patients, as they have to wait in long queue and are treated once all the private patients have been taken care of. Better access to high quality services like that in dentistry and ancillary healthcare are offered to only those who either belong to the privately insured group or belong to a rich class. The Australians belonging to the White society are given the best possible treatment available in the world. While on the contrary, people belonging to the indigenous (Aboriginals and Torres Islander) population do not even have the facility to disclose their problem to a medical practitioner, leave apart getting the correct treatment. Australian Council of social Service (COSS) has implemented various strategies to overcome this gap by supporting the closing the gap priorities and promoting aboriginal health. EFFECTIVENESS Effectiveness can be defined as the measure of accuracy of a therapeutic method of treatment or success of the treatment when conducting the medical practice in remote location, or in the areas where sufficient funds or facilities are not available. Use of information technology in conjugation with high speed internet, is a ray of hope for managing patient’s records, health, finances, work force, advancements in medical field and delivery of services (Imran Muhammed et al., 2012). In this context, in order to introduce positive medical reforms, the government of Australia has implemented Personally Controlled Electronic Health Record (PCEHR) as the e health solution in this country. Earlier, the records of the patients were stored electronically in an electronic health recorder (EHR) system. Such systems were managed by a health care official and it helped a lot in maintaining records of so many people and also provided safety of personal information. But the major drawback of this system was that it was limited to the institutional access. If the family or any other person wanted to look after the patient, he/ she didn’t have any access to these records (Perlin, Kolodner, Rosswell, 2004). To avoid this problem a more patient centered model of health care system was developed (Perlin et al., 2004). This new model was termed as electronic personal health record (PHR) systems. An example of this new technology is Australia’s Personally Controlled Electronic Health Record (PCEHR). PCEHR was introduced in July, 2012. PCEHR had the function of keeping all the key components of the patient’s health information in one database, in form electronic records. Only registered users and their medical service providers had the access to all the records and summary of the treatments and their medical history. The main aim of developing this kind of electronic database was to help the medical practitioners to take better decisions with respect to t he treatments to be given to the patients (Les Schumer, 2013). PCEHR has some basic postulates like voluntary participation, providing access under consumer (or patient’s) control and a source of authentic information. PCEHR is not a substitution for clinical records. Instead depending upon the interest of the patients, they can register themselves online and choose a health care provider to create and maintain their records. People can now view their very own medical history ranging from the time, type and duration of medications, allergies and adverse reactions as well (Les Schumer, 2013). EFFCIENCY Efficiency, when defined in relation to the healthcare, is a relative term. It can be used to refer to technical as well as productive efficiency or even social efficiency. The extent to which effort, cost and time can be used for the desired task or purpose, is the efficiency. It is the final stage of a logical process which comprises of three steps starting from efficacy to effectiveness and finally efficiency. Australian government aims in maximizing the health care outputs produced from a set of standard input and improving the input quality. Conversely, the government is incorporating some measures to ensure that the health care inputs in terms of cost are minimized. As mentioned there are basically three types of efficiencies that are considered in Australian health care system (James F. Burgess, 2011). Technical efficiency: It is measured by production of outputs by utilizing fewer inputs. The potential inefficiencies prevailing in the system are long duration of stay, drugs a nd IV fluids that have expired and unused CPOE system. Productive efficiency: It is measured by production of outputs at minimized cost. Some of the potential inefficiencies faced by Australia are the Positron emission tomography (PET) scan vs. standard imaging for Alzheimer’s diagnosis, high discharge cost and high cost of care. Social efficiency: It is measured by making an individual cope with the current ailment without harming any other person. Again the system is filled with potential inefficiencies like use of cardiac defibrillator in low risk patients and wrong scope and scale in hospitals. Palmer and Torgerson reported that efficiency is the realtion between resource inputs ( which can be costs arising from labour input, capital investment and equipments) and either intermediate outputs (number of patients treated, waiting time, etc) or final health outcomes (lives saved, life years gained, quality adjusted life years (QALYs)) with an ideal target on the final health outcomes. RELATIONSHIP BETWEEN EFFECTIVENESS AND EFFICIENCY Efficiency is not possible without efficacy and effectiveness because both describe the extent to which the goal can be reached (Stephen Leeder, 2003). Keeping in view the Healthcare system of Australia, it is evident that even though the government is trying to reinforce new reforms into the healthcare system every now and then, yet there is lack of equity of access. The aim of such reforms is to improve the healthcare system and help it emerge as the high quality system. For this it is essential to have effective and efficient functioning of the system. But this is not the case. As said before, the health of the people in a particular nation, determines the progress or economic status of the country. And the health of people is determined by how quickly the treatment facilities are available for the patients. The aboriginals and the Torres Islanders are unable to access the medical institutions because of the discrimination and their location (which is generally outside the main ci ty or it is a remote location). The average life span of indigenous Australians is between 10-17 years of age, which is quite lower as compared to that in the non indigenous populations. Also, the rate at which the new born babies die (in indigenous populations) is two times higher than the rate in non indigenous and they also experience frequent situations of illness as well. Thus, it is need of the hour to seal this gap between the two populations so that equal rights and equal opportunities are provided to both the classes of people, irrespective of their origin, race, tribe, etc. Thus, there is a deep connection between equity of access, effectiveness and efficiency. When all the populations, whether indigenous or non indigenous, have equal access to all the medical facilities, the ratio of healthy to ill will definitely rise and the statistics will improve. But this is only possible when the medical facilities are effectively organized and made available in the remote areas too . Further, the successful execution of all these agendas will determine the efficiency of the Health care system. Thus, all the three terms go hand in hand. Without one, the other two are meaningless. CURRENT SCENARIO Many clinicians and the analysts do not consider it appropriate to include economics (costs) inbetween the medical decisions as they consider this as unethical. But they are definitely mistaken as one of the main advantages of health economics is that everything is transparent and all the concepts of equity, effectiveness and efficiency are maintained. It has been reported that the richer countries use the public funds more in the field of healthcare as compared to those used by the underdeveloped countries (Stephen Leeder, 2003). Since the investment made in health care demonstrates a country’s economic strength and its democratic values, it is both desirable and essential for a government to invest in health care. Secondly, the salaries offered to the doctors or other medical officers are very less as compared to what actually should be offered. Moreover, the funds given to the health care systems are not enough to procure the most appropriate treatments and thus this causes problems. Also since the funds are not sufficient, proper medical instruments are also not available for the treatment of chronic disorders. For an instance, there is no provision of NSAIDs which have an anitinflammatory effect on the disease. According to the Canadian social commenter John Ralston Saul, the governments that believe in corporatism, rationalism and cost reduction, as a means to improve the efficiency, become the main reason for the failure of the publically funded health care facilities (Stephen Leeder, 2003). The second scenario prevalent in Australian democracy is that even though the governments provide enough funds for the health care institutions, yet they do not guarantee equity of access. The big private sectors are generally biased and divert all the contribution from the government towards the richer institutions. CONCLUSION In order to place equity on the agenda of the health care policies of the Australian government, it is important to generate awareness about what Medicare and other public agencies actually fund for healthcare. It is also necessary to take the initiative and make the government realize that the topmost priority of any healthcare system should be to provide equity of access, as only then can the policies or treatments be implemented effectively and efficiently. The Australian Bureau of statistics health insurance survey and AXA/ National Mutual Data for NSW (1998), Spencer quoted that around $300 million of the public funds were used for dental care and allied health professional services (Stephen Leeder, 2003). Since dental care is not a luxury, but treatment of chronic illness is, therefore, the basic dental services for all the Australians should be subsidized. Secondly, the salaries received by the doctors from the bulk billed vs. the non bulk billed patients, should be redressed. Third, (hypothetically) a new body say National Council for Equity in Healthcare should be formed, so that it is directly answerable to the Australian Parliament and aim at making the Australian Health care more equitable (Stephen Leeder, 2003). Therefore, as discussed, it is very important to reform the current medical practices so that there is efficiency in the functioning of the health care department of Australia.

European Missionaries in Africa Essay -- African Missionaries Religion

European Missionaries in Africa   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  At the beginning of the nineteenth century, Christianity was bounded to the coastal areas of Africa. At this time in Western Africa, there were a total of three missionary societies operating in western Africa. There was the Society for the Propagation of the Gospel (SPG), the Wesleyan Missionary Society (WMS), and the Glasaw and Scottish Missionary Society (GSMS). In the southern portion of Africa, the Morovian Missionary and the London Missionary were dominant. There was only one society in eastern Africa and there were none at all in northern Africa. However, by 1840 the number of missionary societies had increased to more than fifteen in western Africa, eleven in southern Africa, five in eastern Africa in 1877 and there were six in northern Africa in 1880. Not only were these societies active in the coastal region of Africa, but they also started stretching inland to lands where they haven’t reached before. Around the year 1860, these societies in south ern Africa had traveled as far north as present day Botswana, Lesotho and Zambia. (Boahen 15) Famous names of this time include David Livingston and Robert Moffat. (Gordon 285) Maybe it is good to look at how these missionaries spread and shared their ideas to all four corners of Africa. When the Europeans landed in Africa in the beginning, they had no knowledge of the type of people that they were dealing with. They knew nothing of their culture, language, religion or anything of that nature. So the Europeans had to find someone or something to tell them about the people they were dealing with. The Europeans looked no further than the slaves†¦mainly in the United States. The United States exported freed slaves back to Africa in order to help the colonization process run smoother. After all, these people knew about African culture and language and the people of Africa would probably listen to someone of their own color before a white European whom they knew nothing about. The Christian Africans were most successful around the Guinea coast†¦around Sierra Leone, Liberia and Nigeria. (Gordon 44) In fact, most African Catholics owe their conversion to black catechists. Catechists were Africans who were mostly untrained and unordained, but preached the gospel and set up Catholic communities all over Africa. These catechists were the main people responsible for ... ...ed† people, which mainly comprised of the workers and the poorer citizens of Africa. The result of this was, of course, much social tension and upheaval.   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Even though the people of Africa were given a steady diet of Christianity and Christian doctrine from the missionaries, there were still many that had no intentions of converting. Most Africans held true to their own traditions, there own religion, and their own customs. It also didn’t take a while for the Africans to realize that the missionaries and colonization went hand in hand. The missionaries help the colonizers work up treaties that cheated Africa tribes out of their land and their resources. Kenyan nationalist leader, Jomo Kenyatta, was quoted saying â€Å"When the missionaries came the Africans had the land and the Christians had the Bible. They taught us to pray with our eyes closed. When we opened our eyes we saw that they now had the land and we had the Bible.† ( Gordon 286)   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚   This is the sad truth. The missionaries did use Christianity as a way to control the Africans and make the colonization process easier. These people were doing quite well without having Christianity in their lives†¦believe it or not.

Skins: A whole new look on everything :: Peter Dykstra Technology Essays

Skins: A whole new look on everything Concept Background: Dykstra's concepts of linear programming and modularity take on a whole new look. Peter Dykstra the father of linear programming suggested that anything that could be done in programming could be done with a combination of three basic procedures. Sequence- procedures performed in a linear order Decision- Expressions evaluated to determine between two routes of action. Repetition- The ability of a machine to perform an operation millions of times a second. In order to clean up the commonly used "spaghetti code" of the times, Dykestra then proceeded to say that all code should be divided up into "chunks" related to a specific tasks called modules. The idea was that by abstracting these modules into "black boxes" that with well-defined input they would perform their tasks and generate predictable output. This would allow a programmer to not know anything about the modules he was using except what goes in and what comes out and still be able to use it. This modular thinking was eventually applied to a GUI interface, but is still not widely utilized. What is a "skin"? The term "skin" was first coined by a MP3 player called xxx-AMP. The GUI interface of a program is modulated and broken out from the program as explained in the previous paragraph and given the ability to be swapped with other skins to change the entire appearance of the program. Would you ever guess them to be the exact same program? Would you ever guess the creators of these GUI interfaces were not paid to do it, or necessarily even professionals? My first introduction to a program that had some characteristics of skin like behavior was a shopping cart program with a â€Å"Look and Feel Module† that they had made public to great success. Groups of users would congregate around their site and support each other by swapping self generated custom modules and knowledge on how to create them. However it was far from easy and involved more Perl than HTML or graphics work. How Does it work? Skins in the HTML world follow the same concept. A skin is a simple HTML page with special hooks for the CGI (or ASP, etc.) to connect to. For example: in the HTML a variable that must be replaced with output from the CGI would be named '$$varname:' This will cause the tag to be replaced with the CGI Perl variable $varname.

Comparison of the poems Half-caste and Not My Business Essay

John Agard and Niyi Osundare have both written poems that protest about events or attitudes of people. Agard is From the Caribbean where the population is made up of people from lots of different races. Therefore he is used to being around people of mixed race and will know from first hand experience how horrible it can be to be called only half a person. Osundare has got a good point to make here which is that if people see something going on that is wrong but does not directly involve them, they should do what they can to stop the wrong doing rather than leave it as it may well be them someday and there could be no one to save them. You never know. The first poem is about the term ‘Half-Caste’ which the poet: John Agard, objects to as he thinks that it makes us think of people of mixed race as only half a person instead of a whole person or individual. The next poem ‘Not My Business’ is about the violence used by the state authorities against the people of Nigeria. The poet: Niyi Osundare believes that you should stand up for what is right, regardless of whether it bothers you at that specific time. ‘Not My Business’ is said to echo this statement: â€Å"First they came for the socialists, and I did not speak out because I was not a socialist. Then they came for the trade unionists, and I did not speak because I was not a trade unionist. Then they came for the Jews and I did not speak because I was not a Jew. Then they came for me and there was no one left to speak for me. † The statement is by ‘Pastor Martin Niemoller’ it is very much like the poem ‘Not My Business’ not only because of what is said, but also because of how it is structured. In the first three stanzas what is happening is happening to someone else, not the narrator. However in the last stanza what is happening is happening to the person in the story, either ‘I’ or the Narrator. In ‘Half-Caste’ The poet want us to realize that the term is such a stupid one and he wants the people who use it to realize this and change their attitudes towards people of mixed race. Also the structure of the poem is good as he uses humour at the beginning to catch the reader’s attention and then explains the stupidity of the term. Osundare believes that it is people’s indifference and detachment from what is going on around them that is allowing the terror to go on. The repeated phrase about what business of his is it is indented which shows a distance from what is going on or a detachment. Agard writes phonetically as to the way he would speak the poem, it is one of those poems that needs to be spoken to get the full meaning. He speaks in a patois and uses calypso rhythm and rhyme, which is an example of how English and African dialects have combined and are now a key feature of the poet’s Caribbean culture. ‘Not My Business’ uses a repeated phrase which is just saying ‘What business of mine is it’ etc. This is also indented and therefore shows distance from what is going on in the paragraph. This use of language is a good way to show this distance. This poem says a lot about people’s cultures, not only Nigeria, but people are like this all over the world, and it says a lot that people won’t stick up for what is right just so long as it does not bother them. Both of these poems had a lot to say and they have said it in a strong and down to earth kind of way. The first used humour to get people’s attention and then had a go about the term ‘Half-caste’. However the second just used three examples and then showed that a problem will get much worse if it is left and oppressive regimes are not nice things and people need to stick up and fight against them!

The Scarlet Marxist

in that location have been many critiques of The Scarlet garner by Nathaniel Hawthorne. whatever critiques argon far-fetched. Some indict companys views of religious belief and the guilt of wo hands in the downfall of the gentle race. However, when taking a modern red view of The Scarlet Letter, the scope of the spotless novel packs a dramatic spin, non just for the assures Hawthorne utilizes to bring furys to light, but for lodge and its conventions personad towards certain somebodys. When evaluating the comp ints of The Scarlet Letter, the characters roleplay a sectionalisationicular institutionalise and fond structure within the time.According to Associated kernel, regulator Bellingham is matchless who . . . free to stand marvelous as judge of right and abuse, inviolable and bad, but invitemingly never commits wrong himself. (2009). This redness evaluation of Governor Bellingham may non make sense unless you nurse it within the realm of Marxism a s an indictment on the hostel and how the breakes t reverse to be separated. Governor Bellingham would accordingly represent those who are of affluence or those who are on the fastness end of the economic ladder. This musical interval of the upper relegate from the other infernal regiongle outes indeed(prenominal) go aways Bellingham to make the judgments that he makes ue to his fiscal term within the fellowship. Had Bellingham non had this type of financial influence, then he would non be tolerateed to make any kind of judgments on anyone. Bellinghams flummox as governor halts him certain rights that ordinary citizens would non have. The position in federation gives Bellingham a reason, whether groovy or bad, to hand down what he feels to be rightness for all involved. The justice may not be just but for a few. Yet, when looking at the human bodyes, in red theory, if it benefits the upper categorize, then it is a benefit.The benefit does not stretch or trickle down to the start out classes, which leaves those who are not apart of the upper class at a disadvant while. The character gather, daughter of Hester Prynne can be considered a very animated and active. She is the product of the sensual relationship between Arthur Dimmesdale and Hester Prynne. The child suffered the closing off and condemnation that had been handed to her mother for decent a part of an adulterous affair. Pearl is a stark representative of what happens to persons natural or trustd into a take down stature in society. disregardless of how witty, glorious or un-loving Pearl was as a child, the society within the Puritan community would never accept her because she was the embodiment of high school society deemed inappropriate for persons to participate in. In looking at Pearl in this way, it is not a stretch to produce that she is the puzzle out of the content presented by the society at that time.Terry Eagleton states that Marxist chiding sees fo rm and content as dialectically related, and yet wants to assert in the end the primacy of content in determining form (Eagleton 537). In other words, Pearls form is created by the content of her character, to take a phrase rom Dr. MLK, jr. The circumstances in which she was retrieved puts in her the union of being one who is deeply beguiled with passion. Also, Pearl is one who is stubborn to a fault, just as her mother who refused to give up the name of her lover. Knowing these things rough Pearl would allow one to moult judgment on her and never allow her to ascend to a higher station or class in life. It is this installation of her within the confines of the Dimmesdale and Prynne relationship that would maintenance her limited to a specific class and socio-economic status in life, had she decided o equal within the small capital of Massachusetts neighborhood in which she grew up. Roger Chillingworths character illustrates a different kind of class and form altogether.Chi llingworth returns to town to sire that his wife, Hester Prynne has not only been accused of adultery, but has a child as proof. Prynne never reveals her lover, get-up-and-go Chillingworth to a level of sinister lousiness that had not been presented within the novel. He never revealed his true identity to anyone but Hester Prynne. He acted as caregiver and reestablish for Dimmesdale. It was to a fault at this time that Chillingworth befriended Dimmesdale o find what was eating at his very soul. This type of deception is contemptible to record the least. However, from the Marxist point of view, the true character or form of Chillingworth is a valid recital of the content of his soul. Being a doctor represented being a person of an esteemed stature in society. It besides gave him as a member of high society privileges that others in lower classes would never have. He took those privileges and misused them for his own egoistic gain (which was to find Prynnes lover).Chillingwort h is the real example of how the privileged iphon from others to achieve the terminal ahead. Eagleton would define Chillingworths character as the following . . . is not the first congeal a set of doctrines it signifies the way men live out their roles in class-society, the values, ideas and images which conjoin them to their social functions and so pr nonethelesst them from a true knowledge of society as a whole. (Eagleton 534) In other words, it is Chillingworths class in society that does not allow him to show mercy to Prynne. His class also allows him to be cunning and sleek to find the real illness that afflicts Dimmesdale, use the guilt from the sin to rive Dimmesdale into a chasm of self hatred and loathing, while he simultaneously decays into the demonic fleshly figure that imposes hatred and merciless upon all who daring cross him. Yet, this ghastly figure was indeed Chillingworths true form and content. It is his mathematical operation within the upper class of s ociety that not only gave Chillingworth his form, but also allowed him to participate in the actions leading to Dimmesdales without repentance. For Reverend Arthur Dimmesdale, societys position came with a price.He ended up denying his own flesh and blood in the body of Pearl, and he et the woman he loved (Hester Prynne) carry the weight of the sin they both(prenominal) committed. After the town mark Prynne and adulteress, Dimmesdale could not bring himself to admit to the normal that it was he who shared the night of passion with Prynne which led to the conception of Pearl. His station or class in society would not allow for such a confession. Associated Content refers to Dimmesdale As the ultimately religiously pietistical figure of the town and he is held in high regard. . . (2). It is the status of being the rarified for the town along with his education a young clergyman, who had come from one of the reat position universities, bringing all the learning of the age into our wild-forest land (Hawthorne 62) that keeps Dimmesdale from initially admitting what had taken place between himself and Prynne. In comparison to Eagleton, Dimmesdale is the way of the society and the superstructure that is in place (532). Regardless of how he may want to catch a permanent part of Prynnes life, the superstructure in place would never allow it to be so.It is this superstructure of society that Hester Prynne rebels against and causes her to live a life of isolation with her daughter , carry through her lients who come to her. Hester Prynne has been called an adulteress by many. nevertheless within the religious community, Prynne is thought of at the least, wrong for her actions, including not revealing the cause of her child. It is the content of her life that takes form in this novel. Prynne, strong-willed and determined, did not give in to the demands of the community which asked of her to give Pearls fathers name. Prynne refused to do so and in her refusal, lost her status within the community, never to have it returned to her. Relating her character to Marxist literary theory is relatively asy. Prynne is one of the few who would gladly give up his or her station or class in society to the protection of one if not al l. Prynne would not be accepted within the upper class of Boston at this time for she did not conform to the way the higher classes, both religious and social, decided that life should be conducted.Dr. G. B. Loring declared that It would be hard to conceive of a greater outrage upon the frost and self-denying doctrines of that day, than the sine for which Hester Prynne was damned by and for which Arthur Dimmesdale damned himself (1). Prynnes refusal to become part of the culture that denied itself for form and fashion is what pushed her to the outskirts of society. However, even with the refusal to bend in tow, Prynne went on to live a productive life and see her daughter become a sophisticated young lady. Evaluating The Scarlet Letter from the Marxist point of view is interesting to say the least. Yet, the Marxist point of view gives the proofreader a broader look at the characters and society as a whole. Through Marxism, it is not just the sin that is looked at, but the tally of the heart, the station and class of man, along with his content and form that makes up society then and now.

Identify Tranisitions Experienced by Most Children and Young People Essay

A Transition is a movement, flight or change from one position, state, stage, subject or concept to another. The change end be piecemeal or sudden and last for differing time periods, center some transitions argon short term piece others argon long term. Children make transitions without prior subsist so it whitethorn look dash much(prenominal) as their outset day at cultivate, first exam or first sexual expression. roughly peasantren depart vex many transitions inwardly their look the roughly common transitions that most pincerren fetch are detailed below.One common transition that small fryren make love is travel home whether it is within the same town the already live in or to a unseasoned city. Moving from the street they know and the kinsperson they ready grown up in adjoin by their friends rout out be a genuinely daunting experience for baby birdren as its the unknown. It may cause them to buy the farm frustrated as they are been torn a mode from favourite injects and old friends. They leave as well as feel uneasy somewhat moving to a newfound town and neighbourhood and relate about making new friends.Friends may likewise move away either from their neighbourhood or they could move schools. This may leave the infant savor like they have lost a friend, they may feel noisome about making new friends leading them to feel anxious and shy. They will overly experience upset if their friend is moving out-of-the-way(prenominal) away and they are not likely to hold back them again i.e. if they emigrate. pubescence is a transition that in whole children will experience but they will all experience puberty at a several(predicate) ages while some girls dent puberty around the age of 11 others dont start till they are 15, this is in addition the case with boys. Puberty can be a scary occasion to go through as a child it may leave them feeling confused about the changes going on in their bodies, they may also beg in to feel self-conscious for example if they are maturing slower or faster than friends as they will be constantly comparing their bodies with friends bodies. Children will also feel like they have no guarantee over the changes taking place. During this stage children might become dismissive and argumentative as a way to take out their frustration of the changes taking place within their body.Starting a new school is another transition that all children will experience i.e. when they first start nursery, primary school or secondary school. It can be a daunting experience for a child especially if no(prenominal) of their existing friends are going, they will feel anxious as they wont know what to expect. They may also be nervous about the particular they have to make new friends and settle into new surroundings. Children may become shy, dismissive and anxious until they have settled in and feel comfortable within the surroundings.Another transition that children will experience i s academic session their first exam, they will fell anxious and nervous about what to expect they may also be worried about the result and concerned that they seaportt done well enough to draw onto the course they may want for their future career. This can cause a child a neat deal of stress and anxiety so it is authoritative that they are supported by teachers and parents.When a child experiences there first sexual experience it can be very stressful they will feel anxious about what is about to happen as they have never experienced it before they may also feel nervous about what to do and might feel shy.These are the main transitions that most children will experience as they are ontogeny up. The maculations can cause negative feelings for a child including anxiety, nervous, embarrassed, upset, jealous, confused and frustrated. Transitions also cause positive feelings for the child including content, excited, boost of self-esteem and proud of themselves.It is important that c hildren experience transitions as it suffices them to influence and develop and also helps them learn how to cope in different situations that may be stressful and uncomfortable. It is important that children are supported by parents, peers, teachers and other adults around them when experiencing transitions to help them cope with the situation and also to give them advice and emotional support, the support and help that is required will differ depending on the childs age, situation, ability to cope and other respective(prenominal) circumstances.